What Was the Sixth-Century Plague

The plague of the sixth century was a devastating epidemic that was first noted in Egypt in 541 C.E. It came to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), in 542, then spread through the empire, east into Persia, and into parts of southern Europe. The disease would flare up again somewhat frequently over the next fifty years or so, and would not be thoroughly overcome until the 8th century. The Sixth-Century Plague was the earliest plague pandemic to be reliably recorded in history. The Sixth-Century Plague Was Also Known As Justinians Plague or the Justinianic plague, because it struck the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Justinian. It was also reported by the historian Procopius that Justinian himself fell victim to the disease. He did, of course, recover, and he continued to reign for more than a decade. The Disease of Justinians Plague Just as in the Black Death of the 14th century, the disease that struck Byzantium in the sixth century is believed to have been Plague. From contemporary descriptions of symptoms, it appears that the bubonic, the pneumonic, and the septicemic forms of the plague were all present. The progress of the disease was similar to that of the later epidemic, but there were a few notable differences. Many plague victims underwent hallucinations, both before the onset of other symptoms and after the illness was underway. Some experienced diarrhea. And Procopius described patients who were several days along as either entering a deep coma or undergoing a violent delirium. None of these symptoms were commonly described in the 14th-century pestilence. The Origin and Spread of the Sixth-Century Plague According to Procopius, the sickness began in Egypt and spread along trade routes (particularly sea routes) to Constantinople. However, another writer, Evagrius, claimed the source of the disease to be in Axum (present-day Ethiopia and eastern Sudan). Today, there is no consensus for the plagues origin. Some scholars believe it shared the Black Deaths origins in Asia; others think it sprang from Africa, in the present day nations of Kenya, Uganda, and Zaire. From Constantinople it spread swiftly throughout the Empire and beyond; Procopius asserted that it embraced the entire world, and blighted the lives of all men. In reality, the pestilence didnt reach much farther north than the port cities of Europes Mediterranean coast. It did, however, spread east to Persia, where its effects were apparently just as devastating as in Byzantium. Some cities on common trade routes were nearly deserted after the plague struck; others were barely touched. In Constantinople, the worst seemed to be over when winter came in 542. But when the following spring arrived, there were further outbreaks throughout the empire. There is very little data concerning how often and where the disease erupted in the decades to come, but it is known that plague continued to return periodically throughout the rest of the 6th century, and remained endemic until the 8th century. Death Tolls There are currently no reliable numbers concerning those who died in Justinians Plague. There arent even truly reliable numbers for population totals throughout the Mediterranean at this time. Contributing to the difficulty of determining the number of deaths from plague itself is the fact that food became scarce, thanks to the deaths of many people who grew it and transported it. Some died of starvation without ever experiencing a single plague symptom. But even without hard and fast statistics, it is clear that the death rate was undeniably high. Procopius reported that as many as 10,000 people a day perished during the four months that the pestilence ravaged Constantinople. According to one traveler, John of Ephesus, Byzantiums capital city suffered greater numbers of dead than any other city. There were reportedly thousands of corpses littering the streets, a problem that was handled by having enormous pits dug across the Golden Horn to hold them. Although John stated that these pits held 70,000 bodies each, it still wasnt enough to hold all the dead. Corpses were placed in the towers of the city walls and left inside houses to rot. The numbers are probably exaggerations, but even a fraction of the totals given would have severely affected the economy as well as the overall psychological state of the populace. Modern estimates — and they can only be estimates at this point — suggest that Constantinople lost from one-third to one-half its population. There were probably more than 10 million deaths throughout the Mediterranean, and possibly as many as 20 million, before the worst of the pandemic was through. What Sixth-Century People Believed Caused the Plague There is no documentation to support an investigation into the scientific causes of the disease. Chronicles, to a man, ascribe the plague to the will of God. How People Reacted to Justinians Plague The wild hysteria and panic that marked Europe during the Black Death were absent from sixth-century Constantinople. People seemed to accept this particular catastrophe as just one among many misfortunes of the times. Religiosity among the populace was just as notable in sixth-century Eastern Rome as it was in 14th-century Europe, and so there was an increase in the number of people entering monasteries as well as a rise in donations and bequests to the Church. Effects of Justinians Plague on the Eastern Roman Empire The sharp drop in population resulted in manpower shortages, which led to a rise in the cost of labor. As a result, inflation soared. The tax base shrank, but the need for tax revenue did not; some city governments, therefore, cut salaries for publicly sponsored doctors and teachers. The burden of the death of agricultural landowners and laborers was two-fold: the reduced production of food caused shortages in the cities, and the old practice of neighbors assuming the responsibility of paying taxes on vacant lands caused an increased economic strain. To alleviate the latter, Justinian ruled that neighboring landowners should no longer bear the responsibility for deserted properties. Unlike Europe after the Black Death, the population levels of the Byzantine Empire were slow to recover. Whereas 14th-century Europe saw a rise in marriage and birth rates after the initial epidemic, Eastern Rome experienced no such increases, due in part to the popularity of monasticism and its accompanying rules of celibacy. It is estimated that, over the course of the last half of the 6th century, the population of the Byzantine Empire and its neighbors around the Mediterranean Sea declined by as much as 40%. At one time, the popular consensus among historians was that the plague marked the beginning of a long decline for Byzantium, from which the empire never recovered. This thesis has its detractors, who point to a notable level of prosperity in Eastern Rome in the year 600. There is, however, some evidence for the plague and other disasters of the time as marking a turning point in the development of the Empire, from a culture holding on to the Roman conventions of the past to a civilization turning to the Greek character of the next 900 years.

Philippines Market Segmentation - 1407 Words

Market segmentation is a long-standing strategy used especially in consumer products. It is measurable, accessible, distinguishable, and actionable. Observing markets in the Philippines, can you identify market segments for fast food, garments, cigarettes, alcohol, computers, passenger cars, and beach resort? Please show the positioning of 2 consumer products and their competition in these segments. For levels of Micromarketing 1. Segment Marketing – consists of a group of customers who share a similar set of needs wants. Rather than creating the segment, marketer’s task is to identify them and decide which one(s) to target. 2. Niche Marketing – is a more narrowly defined customer group seeking a distinctive mix of benefits.†¦show more content†¦However, because of the influx and supremacy of commercial drinks, native drinks have been confined to small-scale production Information Technology The Philippine information technology market is primarily being driven by extraordinary growth in outsourced ICT services. The Philippines’ strongest market niche is in IT-enabled services or call centers. More and more companies are making infrastructure investments to support the demand for call center facilities. In fact, the Philippine call center/outsourcing industry is projected to be among the largest sectors in the country for the next five years. Automotive The Philippine automotive aftermarket industry represents a significant portion of economic activity in the Philippines, with extensive upstream and downstream linkages to diverse industries. The industry contributes in a significant way to the country’s employment, investments and exports. Moreover, strong links exist between motor vehicle assemblers, motor vehicle parts and components manufacturers and importers. The off-brand replacement aftermarket for automotive parts is bigger than the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) replacement market, since the country has a large inventory of old (more than 10 years old) motor vehicles and imported second-hand refurbished commercial vehicles. Based on Land Transportation Records (LTO), theShow MoreRelatedPhilippines Market Segmentation1421 Words   |  6 PagesMarket segmentation is a long-standing strategy used especially in consumer products. It is measurable, accessible, distinguishable, and actionable. Observing markets i n the Philippines, can you identify market segments for fast food, garments, cigarettes, alcohol, computers, passenger cars, and beach resort? 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General Categories of Sexual Harassment Free Essays

As more and more women have entered the workforce in the last several decades, there has been a heightened awareness of the problem of sexual harassment. The recent spate of successful employee litigation in this area, combined with tan extension of an employer†s liability for acts of its supervisors and often its rank-and-file employees, has created an area of serious concern to employers. This is particularly so given the heightened awareness to the issue inherent in the U. We will write a custom essay sample on General Categories of Sexual Harassment or any similar topic only for you Order Now S. Supreme Court confirmation hearing of Justice Clarence Thomas. It is important for supervisor and manager to be familiar with the laws of sexual harassment. Their knowledge and actions will not only legally bind the company, but may also make themselves personally liable for violation the law. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which enforces federal prohibition against sexual harassment, defines sexual harassment as â€Å"unwelcome sexual advances, request for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.† The California Fair Employment and Housing Commission (FEHC), which enforces state law, further defines sexual harassment to include: Verbal harassment, such as epithets, derogatory comments or slurs; Physical harassment, such as assault or physical interference with movement or work; and Visual harassment, such as derogatory cartoons, drawings or posters. Two General Categories of Sexual Harassment Over the years, the courts have separated sexual harassment into tow main categories: 1. â€Å"Quid pro quo† occurs when a supervisor or manager conditions an employment benefit or continuing employment on the employees acquiescence in the form of sexual behavior. 2. â€Å"Hostile† or â€Å"offensive† work environment sexual harassment. No employment benefits need be lost or gained, and this type of harassment may be engaged in not only by management, but also by coworkers or persons who are not even employed by the employer. An offensive work environment occurs where sexual jokes, suggestive remarks, cartoons, physical interference with movement such as blocking or following, and sexually derogatory comments create an offensive working environment. In determining when conduct is unwelcome, it†s important to determine is whether the victim indicated by his/her conduct that the sexual advance or conduct were unwelcome, not whether any participation was voluntary. The victim†s conduct may be totally passive, such as not laughing at sexual jokes. In determining whether a work environment is hostile, the conduct must be sufficiently severe and pervasive so as to alter the condition of the employee†s employment. Trivial or merely annoying conduct is not enough. A pattern of offensive conduct is generally required also. Unless severe, a single incident or isolated incident of sexual conduct or remarks will not be sufficient to show environmental harassment. Finally, the conduct will be evaluated from the objective viewpoint of a reasonable person facing the same conditions. The victim†s perspective will be used, not community standards or stereotypes of acceptable behavior. In California, an employer is strictly liable for the sexual harassing conduct of managers and supervisors in both the â€Å"quid pro quo† and â€Å"hostile environment† situation on the common law theory that holds an employer liable for injuries committed by employees during the course of their employment. The assumption is made that if the manager/supervisor did it, then the manager/supervisor knew about it, and therefore the company knew about it. The employer is liable for harassment of an employee by a co-worker and possibly even of non-employees, if the employer knew, or should have known, of such conduct and failed to take immediate and appropriate action. Sexual harassment also may occur where employment benefits are granted because of one employee†s submission to a supervisor†s request for sexual favors, but where other employees equally or better qualified to receive the benefits are denied them. If the employer did not know of the conduct, the FEHC will consider that the employer had notice unless the employer can establish that it took reasonable steps to prevent the harassment from occurring. Such reasonable steps may include having a sexual harassment policy in place, as well as providing sexual harassment training to supervisors and managers. Supervisors, managers, and employees must know and follow the company†s policy against sexual harassment. If a violation of company policy is found, a prompt and effective remedy should be provided to the complaining employee and disciplinary action taken against the harasser. The company can only determine whether company policy was violated. Supervisors and mangers should avoid making any statements or conclusions that illegal sexual harassment has taken place. How to cite General Categories of Sexual Harassment, Essay examples

Clubfoot Essay Research Paper CLUBFOOT Clubfoot is free essay sample

Clubfoot Essay, Research Paper Clubfoot Clubfoot is defined as a inborn pes malformation characterized by a kidney molded pes that turns inward and points down. The forefoot is curved inward, the heel is dead set inward, and the mortise joint is fixed in plantation owner flexure with the toes indicating down. Sawed-off sinews on the interior of the lower leg, together with abnormally shaped castanetss that restrict motion outwards cause the pes to turn inwards. A tightened Achilless tendon causes the pes to indicate downwards. The medical term for talipes is talipes equinovarus. It is the most common inborn upset of the lower appendage. There are several fluctuations, but talipes equinovarus being the most common. Clubfeet occurs in about 1 in every 800-1000 babes, being twice every bit common in male childs than misss. One or both pess may be affected. The history of clubfeet began as far back as 400 B.C. Hipocrates was the first to depict it. He used patchs to handle it. As clip progressed so did the intervention methods. In about 1743 soft stretching was recommended. During that same century, a mechanical device resembling a turnbuckle was used to assist stretch the sinews. By this clip talipes was reasonably good known around the universe, utilizing the typical stretching and splinting methods. In the 1800 s plaster of Paris was foremost introduced, and subsequently that same century, the debut of sterile technique and anasthesia diminished, but non eliminated infection. As the 70 s and 80 s rolled about, other more dependable methods were depended upon. These new methods were less dependent on wrapping and taping. The bulk of clubfeet consequences from unnatural development of the musculuss, sinews, and castanetss while the babe is organizing in the womb. Familial and environmental factors in the development of the foetus seem to besides be some of the causes. The perturbation of the normal turning pes likely occurs at about the 8th hebdomad of gestation. The cause of the pes turning deformed is unknown, but believed to hold something to make with heredity. Many instances of talipes do non hold easy identifiable causes. The end of intervention is to accomplish and keep every bit normal as a pes as possible. The extent of the needed intervention varies, depending upon the rigidness of the pes. Treatment may take several months, but most kids learn to creep, stand, and walk at the normal age. There are a couple different ways to travel about handling talipes, the two most perfered being use and casting, and surgery. Clubfoot is most common in kids who suffer from spina bifida who have an L4 or L5 motor degree. Many orthopaedic sawboness alternatively of consecutive casting suggest early tape and soft use followed by an application of a well-padded s plint. The ground for this is because consecutive casting can do skin annoyances and dislocation. Another technique use and casting is a intervention that begins shortly after birth. It involves easy stretching out the tightened musculuss and keeping the pes in an improved place with a dramatis personae. The dramatis personaes are made of plaster and extend from the toes to either merely above the articulatio genus, or merely below it. Adduction of the pes is normally corrected foremost, followed by inversion of the hindfoot, and in conclusion the plantar flexure. The dramatis personaes are changed often, each clip shifting the pes a small closer to normal. For the first two-three hebdomads, the dramatis personaes are changed every 2nd to 4th twenty-four hours. Cast alterations are so decreased to one time every one-two hebdomads. This intervention continues until the kid is three to six months old. This method of intervention is straitening to the baby for merely a short period of c lip. For this ground parents will be taught cast attention before go forthing the clinic. If the pes is excessively stiff to let for equal rectification, so the tight or shortened sinews may necessitate to be lengthened or released. The type of surgery varies harmonizing to how much soft tissue is released. During a surgical rectification of a mild instance of talipes, the sawbones must make up ones mind which articulations require no, minimum, or moderate scratch. In mild talipes, the mid and posterior subtalar articulations requires minimum or no scratch. All median sinews are lengthened, the front tooth and midtarsal articulations are released, and the heel chord is lengthened. In handling a moderate instance of talipes, the sawbones releases the anterior subtalar articulation, and all median sinews are lengthened. Last when handling the terrible talipes, all malformations are attempted to be corrected Once an acceptable rectification has been achieved by projecting it will necessitate to be maintained with a splint. The most common type of splint is the Dennis Brown boot and saloon. Initially the splint must be worn 20 four hours a twenty-four hours. As the kid learns to walk, the clip in the splint is bit by bit reduced to nighttime usage merely. This could go on until the kid is four or five old ages old. Physical therapy is besides used to handle a kid with talipes. It includes stretching, splinting, taping, supervising dramatis personaes, and learning the parents how to assist and actuate the kid to make mundane life activities. To keep rectification, the kid should be followed by the orthopaedic sawbones until the castanetss, in the pes have stopped turning. This is necessary because the turning pes may slowly loose rectification. If this happens, surgery on the sinews or unnatural castanetss may be needed with repetition projecting. Most kids who have been treated for clubfe et develop usually, and take part in any athletic or recreational activity they choose.